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of Narin, 296 versts (197 miles). The road communications in Chinese territory serving these routes remain in extremely unsatisfactory condition, all trade being carried on exclusively by horse or camel traction, mostly by pack burden; freight charges, owing to the great difficulties and even dangers met with being excessively high. Trade communications with India are effected via Ladak, and with China via Urumtsa.
Trade is mainly concentrated in the towns; Kashgar, the most important, being the chief depôt of goods for dispatch to, or import from, Russia. The town of Aksu trades with Prjevalsk. Yarkend and Khotan distribute Russian goods in the southern parts of Kashgaria and carry on trade with India; Khotan being famous for its carpets and "kosmas" (felt covers).
The Country.-Kashgaria, or Chinese Turkestan, consists of a series of oases separated by desert expanses and connected by roads, to whose deplorable condition the author devotes considerable space. Each oasis is a distinct centre of its own, supplied as far as possible by itself.
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Agriculture Agriculture is the chief occupation of the people, to which added various village industries and a pedlar trade of miscellaneous kinds. About one seventy-fifth of the total area of the land is fit for cultivation. Life is a continual struggle with nature. The soil is exceedingly fertile, but, owing to the dryness of the climate, agricultural work is possible only by artificial irrigation. The chief grains grown are wheat, barley, maize, millet, and peas. There is no grain export to Russian territory. Clover is the chief grass grown.
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Industrial Plants.--Of industrial plants, cotton, hemp, flax, poppy, tobacco, saffron, and sesame are grown. Cotton is mostly grown in the oases of Aksu, Kashgar. Yarkend, Khotan, and Keria. Kashgarian cotton is said by experts to excel Bokharan in quality. American seeds have lately been introduced, which will tend to increase the export of cotton to Russian territory. Hemp, from which the narcotic "nasha,"
gashish," is produced, is cultivated in the oases of Yangi-Gissar, Yarkend, and Kargalik. "Nasha" for years has been one of the chief articles of export to India. From 1897, however, with the imposition of an export duty on this product, the e port has declined. It is forbidden to be imported into Russian territory. Oil is made from sesame, both for food and for illuminating purposes. Flax is but little cultivated.
Fruit-growing---Fruit growing is extensively carried on, the chief fruits being apricots, grapes, peaches, pears, pomegranates, nuts, and berries; fruits forming a considerable item of export to Russia.
Silk and other Goods.-Silk cultivation is one of the occupations of the inhabitants of the oases of Southern Kashgaria. Kotan is famous for its carpets and fine felt covers. The export to Russia of raw silk and silk combings is on the increase,
Horses and Sheep.-Horses and sheep are the chief objects of cattle rearing. Mineral Resouces.-The mineral resources of Kashgaria are great, but little explored or exploited. (For description, see summary of later Report.)
Trade System.-Trade is carried on mostly on credit and by barter of goods. Cash terms are rare. Bills of exchange have lately been introduced by Jewish traders, but the natives, both Russian and Chinese, have but a confused idea of their meaning, and the consequences have been unsatisfactory. From the 1st January, 1903, a Russian customs establishment has been opened in Kashgar itself for the convenience of Russians, the frontier customs points being attended by every sort of difficulty and disadvantage, climatic and other. The opening, too, in 1900 of a branch of the Russo-Chinese Bank in Kashgar has given excellent results in facilitating and furthering Russian trade operations in the country.
Trade Returns.-The author then describes and comments on, at considerable length, the trade figures given in the Appendix to his Report; but as these refer to years previous to 1902, and the later Report of M. Kolokoloff, summarized by me, with the Tables given in extenso, deals with later years, up to 1905, the latter will now be more up-to-date and of greater practical interests.
Trade with India.-The trade of Kashgaria with Ladak--i.e., viâ Ladak with India-is not in conditions favourable to development, owing to the length and dear- ness of transport. There are no precise data as to the dimensions of the trade with India. Captain Campion estimated the total trade turnover (exports and imports) at 2,000,000 roubles in 1890. In 1895 it increased to 4,000,000 roubles. From that year a systematic decline set in, coincident with the introduction by Russia of draw- backs on textile goods. In 1898 the total turnover with India amounted to 2,383,000 roubles, or 235,000 roubles less than during the preceding year.
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The imports to Yarkend from India in 1903 consisted of 3,150 packs, valued at 351,235 roubles, including corals, calico, red cotton-stuffs, muslins, velvet, indigo, tea, &c.
The exports from Yarkend to India that year amounted to 4,500 packs, valued at 350,000 roubles, including silk, wool, felt covers, carpets, and "nasha," (a hemp narcotic). The imports to Khotan from India the same year amounted to 464 packs, value 58,725 roubles, including indigo, dyed goatskins, tea, calico, brocades, spices, velvets, muslins, corals, needles, &c. The exports from Khotan to India amounted to 50,000 roubles in value, of which 41,000 roubles were Russian roubles (it is not stated whether in the form of gold, silver, or paper roubles). The entire trade turnover with India in 1903 amounted to 809,960 roubles. Italian corals form the chief item of import from India, Besides corals, muslins for turbans, tea, brocades and tissue cloth, and otterskins are imported. The import of textiles decreases from year to year. The exports to India are silk, felt covers, Russian money, and Russian textiles, the last-mentioned SO far in very inconsiderable quantity.
Inclosure 3 in No. 1.
Summary of the Report of M. Kolokoloff, Russian Consul at Kashgar, intitled,
Review of Kashgaria."
Economic
(Published in the Russian official " Collection of Consular Reports, 1906," Issue 3.)
THE Report in question extends to seventy-four printed pages. The Consul refers to the country, about which he is reporting, sometimes as Kashgaria," some- times as " Eastern Turkestan," and at others as "Chinese Turkestan." On p. 194 of the Report he explains "the whole expanse of Kashgaria" as embracing the cultivated oases of Kashgar, Yiangi-Gissar, Yarkend, Kargalik, Khotan, Chir, Nii, Keria, Cherchen, Maralbasha, Aksu, Utch-Turphan, Kutchar, Kurla, Shayar, and Char- khalik.
For convenience' sake I adopt his word "Kashgaria as referring to the whole country of Chinese Turkestan, and Kashgar as referring to the town of that name.
Kashgarian Trade Conditions. During the last twenty-four years (see Tables) the returns of Russian trade with Kashgaria have shown a decided tendency to advance, save only in 1905, when, owing to political disturbances in Russia, a decline of some 1,900,000 roubles in Russo-Kashgarian trade ensued, the exports from Kashgaria to Russia falling by over 1,000,000 roubles that year. Kashgarian trade conditions in general are of peculiar local and native stamp, mostly retail, and almost entirely on the credit or barter system. The author gives a detailed description of local native trading conditions, customs, and peculiarities, conditions which, owing to their complexity, Russian traders do not assimilate at all, only one Russian firm at present operating (in cotton) in Kashgar itself. The wide local credit conditions in vogue, and the extreme difficulty of legally or otherwise exacting fulfilment of debt obligations, react adversely on trading intercourse with Russia. Communications, too, are unsatisfactory. The result of these and other unfavourable conditions is that all Russian trade is in the hands of intermediaries, natives from Russian Turkestan, of whom, in the various towns of Kashgaria, some 700 may be counted. Almost all efforts of Russians to start business of themselves have failed.
Character of the Natives.-The lessons of science teach us that the character and economic welfare of a nation depend chiefly on natural and climatic conditions, and on the enforced struggle of the inhabitants to master and improve these conditions. This principle hardly applies to Kashgaria at all, where, in place of creative labour and energy of mind, there prevails a deadening stagnation in all that appertains to economic and spiritual progress. Owing to the extremely dry climate of the country --for instance, irrigation is the most essential question for the natives-the entire area under cultivation being dissected by a network of very primitive canals, these being dependent solely on varying climatic conditions for their water supply, unassisted by the direction and facilities that could be, but are not, given by man. The character of the natives is seen in all products of their clumsy and flimsy handiwork, void of any sign of creative genius. Of themselves, the inhabitants are quite incapable as
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